Purpose
The history of oratory reveals, for example, certain periods in which sermons were delivered in church and then printed and widely disseminated to the populace. People sought to obtain copies of sermons in order to examine and discuss the focal ideas and meanings. Such periods of history are over, and today most sermons are presented and soon forgotten. However, the possibility exists that closer attention to structural components may prompt the public to examine and discuss contemporary sermons. If preachers were more concerned about the structure of their sermons, they probably would be more effective in influencing the convictions and actions of their hearers. The same applies to students of oratory, especially those who participate in oratorical contests.

The purpose of this article is fivefold: (1) to treat certain forms of behavior that occur in the listening situation and are relevant to structural consideration; (2) to present a suggested outline format that rests upon the behavioral guidelines; (3) to offer suggestions for phrasing major concepts; (4) to offer a suggested sequence of steps for the construction of outlines; and (5) to discuss briefly extemporaneous versus manuscript forms of presentation as they relate to the outline.

Listening Behavior
Recall ability of most people in the listening situation is low. For example, in the Eighth Edition of An Introduction to Human Communication, Judy C. Pearson and Paul E. Nelson report that immediately after being presented with a message, people are likely to recall only 50 percent of what they heard. In the Eighth Edition of The Art of Public Speaking, Stephan E. Lucas agrees with the 50 percent retention, and adds that after 24 hours most people remember only 10 percent of the original message. A knowledge of this phenomenon alone should prompt preachers to construct outlines that aid the listener in recalling the message of the sermon.

A second form of behavior in the listening situation is that people tend to comprehend major ideas better than they do detailed information. Preachers who present conceptually complex sermons fail to understand that many people are unable to focus clearly on numerous concepts in a short period of time. Many theorists contend that people should talk more and more about less and less. In other words, regardless of the length of the sermon, preachers should focus on only two or three concepts.

A third form of behavior is that people tend to retain longer those concepts that are reinforced. The processes of repetition and restatement should be inculcated in the structure to assist retention capability. A deliberate placement of supporting material under each major concept should be employed when planning the outline. Apparently too many preachers hope for divine inspiration to supply them with supporting material at the moment of utterance. This practice often results in metaphysical sermons meant for theological scholars rather than for laity in the congregation.

A fourth form of behavior is that people tend to comprehend short sentences better than they do long sentences. When planning the outline the speaker can phrase his major concepts and examine them for word count. While it is difficult to determine exactly what length makes a long concept, it is possible to eliminate words that are vague, general, or ambiguous. Only one aspect of a subject should be phrased in one major idea, thus avoiding multiple-oriented concepts and reducing the length of the concept. The appearance of conjunctives and punctuation often indicates that the idea is presented indirectly or that multiple ideas exist. By eliminating conjunctives and punctuation whenever possible, preachers can shorten the sentence containing the major concept and thus establish clearer focus. An example of a long, complex, and indirectly phrased concept is: “Jesus, through his life and ministry shattered man-made barriers constructed by man’s inhumanity to man, for example, the barriers of race and moral reputation.” By applying the above suggestions, the preacher could say: “Through his ministry on earth Jesus shattered the race barrier.”

A fifth form of behavior is that people tend to recall and comprehend summaries. While most summaries occur at the ends of sermons, if they occur at all, they can be employed usefully in the introduction as well. This is sometimes referred to as an initial summary. A minimum effort to present the main ideas in the introduction and to present them again in the conclusion should aid the hearers, because the preacher has given them a blueprint to follow in the introduction, and the listener has another opportunity to focus on the ideas in the conclusion.

A sixth form of behavior is that people tend to be influenced more by explicit messages than they are by implicit ones. The specific purpose or goal of a sermon should be stated explicitly so that the hearers do not draw their own inferences. If the message intended is implicit, then the preacher increases the possibility that the hearers will distort his intentions.

Preachers who fail to state their intentions explicitly, leave their audience without a focal point for the sermon. Some preachers present a title as the essence of the specific purpose, but this generally is unsatisfactory because it is only a fragment of a complete thought. It is better to state explicitly that “A Christian should practice charity daily,” than to state, “Today I want to talk about charity.” Other preachers present the explicit purpose at the end of the sermon. In this case, the audience has only a vague notion as to the force of the message while they are listening; hence, the message is more implicit than it is explicit. Preachers should present their purpose in the introduction, to avoid losing the attention of the audience because of the implicit nature of the message.

One of the most practiced techniques of preachers is to substitute a scriptural quotation for the specific goal of the sermon. However, many of these quotations contain implicit messages that need focus and clarification for the hearer. Several examples may serve to clarify this distinction between the implicit nature of scriptural quotation and the explicit statement of the specific theme.

IMPLICIT:
“For we are not ignorant of his designs” (2 Corinthian 2:11)

EXPLICIT:
Satan’s stratagems are designed to destroy Christianity.

IMPLICIT:
“He [God] is not the God of the dead, but of the living” (Matthew 22:32)

EXPLICIT:
Spiritual life is after death.

IMPLICIT:
“Do you not know that in a race all the runners compete, but only one receives the prize? So run that you may obtain it. Every athlete exercises self-control in all things. They do it to receive a perishable wreath, but we an imperishable. Well, I do not run aimlessly, I do not box as one beating the air; but I pommel my body and subdue it, lest after preaching to others, I myself should be disqualified”(1 Corinthians 9:24-27)

EXPLICIT:
Spiritual growth requires intensive effort.

Obviously the explicit statements are easier to retain.

A seventh form of behavior is that people tend to recall individual parts within the context of a pattern. To illustrate, consider the following numbers: 12345678901. If a pattern is applied to these digits, meaning is extracted and the parts are recalled more easily. A possible pattern is: 1 234 567-8901. Now the observer may recall a telephone pattern that indicates 1 as direct distance dialing, 234 as the area code, 567 as the local exchange, and 8901 as the specific number of a given party. When related to structure, this principle suggests that major ideas should be placed within a thought pattern. Some possible thought patterns are Problem-Solution or Solution-Problem; Cause-Effect or Effect-Cause; Chronological; Spatial (i.e., east to west, top to bottom, inside to outside); Antithetical (i.e., pro or con, advantageous or disadvantageous); and Classification (i.e., young or old, literate or illiterate, employed or unemployed).

Preachers can take any thought pattern and let it suggest the number and nature of the major ideas, For example, if a preacher selects the Problem-Solution pattern, he would have two major ideas in the body of the sermon. The first main idea would state the essence of the problem, and the second main idea would state the essence of the solution. An example of this pattern can be employed in a sermon concerning the general topic of human selfishness. Two possible main ideas can be phrased: “We are plagued with the problem of human selfishness,” and “The solution to this problem should begin in the home.” In this case it is better to focus on two main concepts in a pattern sequenced for the entire sermon than to establish three sub-concepts of the problem and five solutions all in one sermon. The main ideas are then amplified, clarified, and supported with material to establish them as the only two focal points of the sermon. Other aspects of the topic on human selfishness could be presented in another sermon at another time in order to effect reinforcement of a moral behavior over a longer period of time.

The following is a comparison between main ideas selected at random and main ideas established in a time sequence:

RANDOM ORDER

1. Recounting and explanation of the Gospel story in terms meaningful to modern man.
2. The questions perplexing us today.
3. The parable confronts us with the abiding fact and mystery of human sin.
   
   

TIME SEQUENCE:

1. Standards of moral behavior were formed in the early days of Christianity.
2. Standards of moral behavior today are being questioned by many.
3. Standards of moral behavior in the future will have to account for human sin.

Probably any audience would consider the topics on the right to be clearer than are those on he left. Preachers must employ patterns, if they wish to be influential in affecting the convictions and actions of their hearers.

The Guidelines in Perspective
If preachers apply the preceding behavioral guidelines, the outline of a sermon assumes the following suggested topical format:

TITLE OF SERMON

• I. Introduction
  • A. Opening
  • B. Specific Purpose
  • C. Initial Presentation of Main Ideas
• II. Discussion
  • A. First Main Idea
    • 1. First Item of Support.
  • B. Second Main Idea
    • 1. First Item of Support
• III. Ending
  • A. Summary of Main Ideas
  • B. Restatement of Specific Purpose
  • C. Closing Remark

No rhetorical law or principle prescribes that a speaker must perform a certain action at a certain time in the order of a speech. The speaker may choose from a number of options based upon the best thinking and information presented by rhetorical theorists. The following outline is expanded to provide some possible options at each stage in the speech or sermon.

Title of Sermon (short, imaginative)

• I.Introduction
  • A. Opening Options
    • 1. Present the motivational rationale for speaking. Explain why the preacher should talk about the specific idea and why the congregation should listen to this idea at this particular time.
    • 2. Present an experience that relates to the specific purpose. It may be a personal experience of the preacher, or one that he observed or read about that was intense enough in its implications to motivate him to talk about it in the sermon. For example, a minister once opened a sermon by relating an informal discussion he had with a nine-year-old boy who was taking religious instructions in his church. The minister probed the boy’s attitudes on the war in Iraq and was so astounded by the feedback that this became the motivating factor for his sermon on Sunday.
    • 3. Present an item of support which is related to the subject matter. Possible forms of support are listed in the discussion portion (Part II). For example, the preacher may open by defining a word that will be used often in the sermon in order to advance its meaning immediately and bring focus to the message he wishes to convey. Words such as love, peace, and sin are selected so often that preachers apparently assume that everyone holds the same meaning for the same word.
    • 4. Scripture may be cited, but this is such a common device that many listeners may ignore it, especially if the message is implicit. Scripture may be the silent motivator, but it may be better to present it in the form of a specific purpose or as a form of support for a main idea.
  • B. Explicitly present the specific purpose of the sermon.
  • C. Clearly state each main point that will be discussed in Part II, and identify the thought pattern in relation to the main idea.
• II. Discussion
  • A. Restate the first main idea.
    • 1. Present the first item of support from the options listed below. Consider selecting items that have a real basis rather than a hypothetical construct. Much preaching is on an abstract plane, and it is through the selection of supporting material extracted from reality that the listener can discover how religious convictions or actions have meaning in a real society. For instance, it may be better to select a real example rather than a hypothetical one, or to make a comparison between two or more real people rather than hypothetical ones. The number of items of support selected for each main idea will depend on the amount of time for speaking.
      • a. An example
      • b. A definition
      • c. A statistic
      • d. A comparison
      • e. A quotation
      • f. A dialogue
      • g. An anecdote
      • h. An audio-visual aid
      • i. Any other forms of support that apply to the topic
  • B. Restate the second main idea.
    • 1. Present the first item of support
• III. Ending
  • A. Summarize by restating the main points
  • B. Restate the specific purpose
  • C. Present the closing argument

PHRASING THE SPECIFIC PURPOSE AND MAIN POINTS
To phrase the specific purpose and major points of a sermon, the preacher should adhere to the following procedures. First, establish one sentence for each concept. Second, construct a complete thought. Third, write each concept in a declarative sentence. Fourth, examine each word for clarity. Fifth, work toward phrasing each concept with as few words as possible. Sixth, establish only one focal point in each concept. Finally, determine whether the conceptual structure calls for a level of conviction, or action, or both.

SUGGESTED SEQUENCE IN OUTLINE CONSTRUCTION
To construct an outline for a sermon, the preachers should adhere to the following sequence. First, select and phrase the specific purpose. Second, select and phrase the main ideas. Third, select the specific thought pattern. Fourth, select the supporting material for each main idea. Fifth, select an opening motivational basis. Sixth, select a closing remark. Seventh, place all items on paper, using the numerical scheme suggested above.

EXTEMPORANEOUS AND MANUSCRIPT PRESENTATION
After preparing the outline, the preacher either can convert the outline to a fully expanded manuscript, or can transfer the outline to note cards for an extemporaneous presentation. It is possible to use the fully expanded outline as speaking notes, but the tendency to read from it too much can cause the preacher to forget to look directly at the audience. Conversion to a topical outline on note cards provides less of a barrier between the orator and the audience.

CLOSING
Indeed! Structure, the classical rhetorical canon called Dispositio, is important for oratorical success. For example, in the Phaedrus, Plato remarked that “every speech ought to be put together like a living creature, with a body of its own, so as to be neither without head, nor without feet, but to have both a middle and extremities, described proportionately to each other and to the whole.” In short, orations should have a beginning, a middle, and a conclusion. However, structure needs flexibility to fit the particular situation and audience, and this flexibility comes only from studying formal rhetorical treatises and other readings that reveal how experienced orators have handled such demands. Such study is necessary, for as Professor Corbett remarked in Classical Rhetoric for the Modern Student “without order the force or even the best material, though chosen with the keenest of discretion, will be weakened.” No wonder that sermons and other orations without appropriate structure are soon forgotten.

(Wayne C. Mannebach, directed debate and forensics at Ripon College for nine years, and for the past twenty-nine years he has taught English at St. Mary's Central High School in Neenah (WI).